Indian termination policy was a policy that the United States Congress implemented in 1950s and 1960s to assimilate the Native Americans (Indians) with mainstream American society, by terminating the government's trusteeship of Indian reservations and making Indians assume all the responsibilities of full citizenship.
A 1943 survey of Indian conditions, conducted by the United States Senate, revealed that the living conditions on the reservations were extremely poor. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and the federal bureaucracy were found to be at fault for the troubling problems due to extreme mismanagement. The Federal government believed that some tribes no longer needed its protection, and should be part of the mainstream American society. Goals of termination included repealing laws that discriminated against Indians, free the Indians from domination by the BIA, and ending federal supervision of the Indians. Senator Arthur V. Watkins of Utah, the strongest proponent for termination, equated it with the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared the freedom of all slaves in the territory of the CSA.
In 1953, the House of Representatives and the Senate announced their support for the "Termination" policy, with House Concurrent Resolution 108:
“Whereas it is the policy of Congress, as rapidly as possible, to make the Indians within the territorial limits of the United States subject to the same laws and entitled to the same privileges and responsibilities as are applicable to other citizens of the United States, to end their status as wards of the United States, and to grant them all of the rights and prerogatives pertaining to American citizenship”
Public Law 280, passed in 1953, gave the State governments the power to assume jurisdiction over Indian reservations. In 1957–58, a State Senate Interim Committee investigation revealed that little had been done to prepare Indian reserves for termination. In 1958, the Rancheria Termination Act was enacted.
Western Oregon Indian Termination Act of 1954 – This act terminated about 67 tribes from western Oregon, including the Grand Ronde and Siletz Reservations. This one act terminated more Tribes than all other termination acts combined.
During 1953–1964, 109 tribes were terminated, approximately 1,365,801 acres of trust land were removed from protected status, and 13,263 Native Americans lost tribal affiliation. As a result of termination, the special federal trustee relationship of the Indians with the federal government ended, they were subjected to state laws, and their lands were converted to private ownership.
The tribes disapproved of Public Law 280, as they disliked states having jurisdiction without tribal consent. The State governments also disapproved of the law, as they didn't want to take on jurisdiction for additional areas without additional funding. Consequently, additional amendments to Public Law 280 were passed to require tribal consent in law enforcement. On May 3, 1958, the Inter Tribal Council of California (ITCC) was founded in response to the pressures of termination and other issues.
Many scholars believe that the termination policy had devastating effects on tribal autonomy, culture and economic welfare. The lands belonging to the Native Americans, rich in resources, were taken over by the federal government. The termination policy had disastrous effects on the Menominee tribe (located in Wisconsin) and the Klamath tribes (located in Oregon), forcing many members of the tribes onto public assistance rolls.
In 1961, President John F. Kennedy decided against implementing any more termination measures, although he did enact some of the last terminations, including that of the Ponca Tribe, which culminated in 1966. Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon decided to encourage Indian self-determination instead of termination.
Some tribes fought back. The struggle lasted until 1980, when the issue made its way to the US Supreme Court. The 1974 Boldt Decision was upheld in 1980 to recognize those treaty rights that were lost. With problems arising in the 1960s several organizations were formed, such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) and other organizations that helped protect the rights of the Indians and their land. In 1975, Congress had implicitly rejected the termination policy by passing the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, which increased the tribal control over reservations and helped with the funding of building schools closer to the reservations. On January 24, 1983, President Ronald Reagan issued an American Indian policy statement that supported explicit repudiation of the termination policy.
Friday, February 15, 2008
Ball Game of the Birds and the Animals
A Cherokee Legend
Long ago, the animals sent a message to the birds. "Let us have a big ball game. We will defeat you in a big ball game."
The birds answered, "We will meet you. We will defeat you in a big ball game."
So the plans were made. The day was set. At a certain place, all the animals gathered, ready to throw the ball to the birds in the trees. On the side of the animals were the bear, the deer, and the terrapin or turtle. The bear was heavier than the other animals. He was heavier than all the birds put together. The deer could run faster than the other animals could. The turtle had a very thick shell. So the animals felt sure that they would win the game.
The birds, too, felt sure that they would win. On their side were the eagle, the hawk, and the great raven. All three could fly swiftly. All three had farseeing eyes. All three were strong and had sharp beaks that could tear.
In the treetops the birds smoothed their feathers. Then they watched every movement of the animals on the ground below them. As they watched, two small creatures climbed up the tree toward the leader of the birds. These two creatures were but a little bigger than mice.
"Will you let us join in the game?" they asked the leader of the birds.
The leader looked at them for a moment. He saw that they had four feet.
"Why don't you join the animals?" he asked them. "Because you have four feet, you really belong on the other side."
"We asked to play the game on their side," the tiny creatures answered. "But they laughed at us because we are so small. They do not want us."
The leader of the birds felt sorry for them. So did the eagle, the hawk, and the other birds.
"But how can they join us when they have no wings?" the birds asked each other.
"Let us make wings for the little fellows," one of the birds suggested.
"We can make wings from the head of the drum," another bird suggested.
The drum had been used in the dance the night before. Its head was the skin of a groundhog. The birds cut two pieces of leather from it, shaped them like wings, and fastened them to the legs of one of the little fellows. Thus they made the first bat.
The leader gave directions. He said to the bat, "When I toss the ball, you catch it. Don't let it touch the ground.
The bat caught it. He dodged and circled. He zigzagged very fast. He kept the ball always in motion, never letting it touch the ground. The birds were glad they had made wings for him.
"What shall we do with the other little fellow?" asked the leader of the birds. "We have used up all our leather in making the wings for the bat."
The birds thought and thought. At last one of them had an idea.
"Let us make wings for him by stretching his skin," suggested the eagle.
So eagle and hawk, two of the biggest birds, seized the little fellow. With their strong bills they tugged and pulled at his fur. In a few minutes they stretched the skin between his front feet and his hind feet. His own fur made wings. Thus they made the first flying squirrel.
When the leader tossed the ball, flying squirrel caught it and carried it to another tree. From there he threw it to the eagle. Eagle caught it and threw it to another bird. The birds kept the ball in the air for some time, but at last they dropped it. Just before it reached the ground, the bat seized it. Dodging and circling and zigzagging, he kept out of the way of the deer and other swift animals. At last bat threw the ball in at the goal. And so he won the game for the birds.
Long ago, the animals sent a message to the birds. "Let us have a big ball game. We will defeat you in a big ball game."
The birds answered, "We will meet you. We will defeat you in a big ball game."
So the plans were made. The day was set. At a certain place, all the animals gathered, ready to throw the ball to the birds in the trees. On the side of the animals were the bear, the deer, and the terrapin or turtle. The bear was heavier than the other animals. He was heavier than all the birds put together. The deer could run faster than the other animals could. The turtle had a very thick shell. So the animals felt sure that they would win the game.
The birds, too, felt sure that they would win. On their side were the eagle, the hawk, and the great raven. All three could fly swiftly. All three had farseeing eyes. All three were strong and had sharp beaks that could tear.
In the treetops the birds smoothed their feathers. Then they watched every movement of the animals on the ground below them. As they watched, two small creatures climbed up the tree toward the leader of the birds. These two creatures were but a little bigger than mice.
"Will you let us join in the game?" they asked the leader of the birds.
The leader looked at them for a moment. He saw that they had four feet.
"Why don't you join the animals?" he asked them. "Because you have four feet, you really belong on the other side."
"We asked to play the game on their side," the tiny creatures answered. "But they laughed at us because we are so small. They do not want us."
The leader of the birds felt sorry for them. So did the eagle, the hawk, and the other birds.
"But how can they join us when they have no wings?" the birds asked each other.
"Let us make wings for the little fellows," one of the birds suggested.
"We can make wings from the head of the drum," another bird suggested.
The drum had been used in the dance the night before. Its head was the skin of a groundhog. The birds cut two pieces of leather from it, shaped them like wings, and fastened them to the legs of one of the little fellows. Thus they made the first bat.
The leader gave directions. He said to the bat, "When I toss the ball, you catch it. Don't let it touch the ground.
The bat caught it. He dodged and circled. He zigzagged very fast. He kept the ball always in motion, never letting it touch the ground. The birds were glad they had made wings for him.
"What shall we do with the other little fellow?" asked the leader of the birds. "We have used up all our leather in making the wings for the bat."
The birds thought and thought. At last one of them had an idea.
"Let us make wings for him by stretching his skin," suggested the eagle.
So eagle and hawk, two of the biggest birds, seized the little fellow. With their strong bills they tugged and pulled at his fur. In a few minutes they stretched the skin between his front feet and his hind feet. His own fur made wings. Thus they made the first flying squirrel.
When the leader tossed the ball, flying squirrel caught it and carried it to another tree. From there he threw it to the eagle. Eagle caught it and threw it to another bird. The birds kept the ball in the air for some time, but at last they dropped it. Just before it reached the ground, the bat seized it. Dodging and circling and zigzagging, he kept out of the way of the deer and other swift animals. At last bat threw the ball in at the goal. And so he won the game for the birds.
A Hollow Apology to Indian People
By: Kevin Abourezk
"Good words cannot give me back my children. Good words will not give my people good health and stop them from dying. ... I am tired of talk that comes to nothing. It makes my heart sick when I remember all the good words and all the broken promises."
— Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce
It's a question likely born of the Civil Rights Movement, when this country finally began to take a hard look at how it treats its people of color.
Should the United States apologize for its mistreatment of Indian people?
A Kansas senator wants his government to again wrestle with that question, proposing that the U.S. Senate issue a formal apology to Native people.
In an amendment attached to the Indian Health Care Improvement Act, Sen. Sam Brownback proposes apologizing to Native people.
For the many treaties the government has broken with Indian people.
For its policies of extermination and assimilation of Native people.
For outlawing indigenous religions and forcing tribes out of their traditional homelands.
For the massacre of Native people at places like Sand Creek and Wounded Knee.
For the devastating effect the government's failed policies have had on succeeding generations of Native people.
Get the whole story here: http://www.reznetnews.org/blogs/red-clout/hollow-apology-indian-people
"Good words cannot give me back my children. Good words will not give my people good health and stop them from dying. ... I am tired of talk that comes to nothing. It makes my heart sick when I remember all the good words and all the broken promises."
— Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce
It's a question likely born of the Civil Rights Movement, when this country finally began to take a hard look at how it treats its people of color.
Should the United States apologize for its mistreatment of Indian people?
A Kansas senator wants his government to again wrestle with that question, proposing that the U.S. Senate issue a formal apology to Native people.
In an amendment attached to the Indian Health Care Improvement Act, Sen. Sam Brownback proposes apologizing to Native people.
For the many treaties the government has broken with Indian people.
For its policies of extermination and assimilation of Native people.
For outlawing indigenous religions and forcing tribes out of their traditional homelands.
For the massacre of Native people at places like Sand Creek and Wounded Knee.
For the devastating effect the government's failed policies have had on succeeding generations of Native people.
Get the whole story here: http://www.reznetnews.org/blogs/red-clout/hollow-apology-indian-people
March for American Indian awareness comes to Lodi
By: Chris Nichols
More than 50 spirited marchers arrived in Lodi on Wednesday as part of the Longest Walk 2008, a five-month, cross-country trek to raise awareness for American Indian issues.
The group plans to walk to Washington, D.C. to commemorate the 30th anniversary of 1978's Longest Walk.
Like marchers three decades ago, their goals include promoting social justice and protections for the environment and American Indian burial grounds, several said.
The marchers — wearing Longest Walk T-shirts and leather medicine bags and carrying a tall banner lined with eagle feathers — set off from Flag City on Wednesday morning, the third day of their journey, passing scenic grapevines and orchards along Highway 12.
With a diverse collection of participants, including Buddhist monks, Japanese tourists and numerous young people, the rural roadway looked more like downtown Berkeley than San Joaquin County.
Stopping during a break in the march, Larry Bringing Good, of Stockton, one of the walk's organizers, explained a bit of history behind the effort. Threats by the federal government to dissolve treaties with American Indians spurred the first walk. Mining and timber interests had set eyes on reservation lands, he said.
Environmental concerns, such as air and water pollution, along with the first walk's anniversary, drove this year's march.
There's more here: http://www.lodinews.com/articles/2008/02/14/news/1_walk_080214.txt
More than 50 spirited marchers arrived in Lodi on Wednesday as part of the Longest Walk 2008, a five-month, cross-country trek to raise awareness for American Indian issues.
The group plans to walk to Washington, D.C. to commemorate the 30th anniversary of 1978's Longest Walk.
Like marchers three decades ago, their goals include promoting social justice and protections for the environment and American Indian burial grounds, several said.
The marchers — wearing Longest Walk T-shirts and leather medicine bags and carrying a tall banner lined with eagle feathers — set off from Flag City on Wednesday morning, the third day of their journey, passing scenic grapevines and orchards along Highway 12.
With a diverse collection of participants, including Buddhist monks, Japanese tourists and numerous young people, the rural roadway looked more like downtown Berkeley than San Joaquin County.
Stopping during a break in the march, Larry Bringing Good, of Stockton, one of the walk's organizers, explained a bit of history behind the effort. Threats by the federal government to dissolve treaties with American Indians spurred the first walk. Mining and timber interests had set eyes on reservation lands, he said.
Environmental concerns, such as air and water pollution, along with the first walk's anniversary, drove this year's march.
There's more here: http://www.lodinews.com/articles/2008/02/14/news/1_walk_080214.txt
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